42. FOOD: in Torembi
The village of Torembi is situated on the flood plain of the Sepik River. Most of the food used by the villagers is grown or harvested locally. Processed and pre-packaged foods are available, but these tend to be expensive.The staple food is sago, harvested by women and made into sago pancakes. Also, every family in Torembi has a garden. Small clearings are made in flood-free sections of the nearby forest and fences protect crops from foraging pigs. Common foodstuffs grown include tropical fruits, green vegetables, sugar cane, corn, onions, peanuts, taro and yams. Protein is provided by fish from the river, chickens and pigs; peanuts are a less important protein source. Wild greens and coconuts are gathered and do not need to be cultivated.
Food must be regularly harvested and prepared as there is no refrigeration and the hot climate means fresh food spoils easily.
The responsibility for food production and gathering is largely that of women. Men might occasionally work in the family garden, but it is women who harvest sago, collect wild greens and cultivate or gather other foods.(Related entries: FOOD PRODUCTION, GARDENS, SAGO, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)
43. FOOD PRODUCTION: in PNG
Food production is generally keeping pace with population and demand in rural areas. Staples such as taro, yams and sweet potato are sometimes in short supply in urban areas, where there is a greater dependence on imported food products. In order to keep up the supply of fresh produce, subsistence farmers grow more than is required for immediate family use, using the surplus to sell or exchange in markets.(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, FOOD: Torembi, GARDENS, GEOGRAPHY, SHIFTING CULTIVATION, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)
44. FORESTRY
75% of Papua New Guinea is covered by rainforests which contain many tree varieties of commercial export value as logs, sawn timber, raw materials for quality furniture or woodchips. This natural resource represents significant economic potential for industrial development. However, there are problems in accessing the timber as it difficult and expensive to build roads to transport it. More significantly still, there are grave environmental concerns regarding the impact of industrial scale logging, especially if no large-scale reforestation program is established, or if controls are not put in place on export quantity and quality. The consequences could be disastrous for PNG’s environment and mean short term benefits for some, at the expense of long-term problems for others.The rights of local landowners to fair returns for logging on their traditional land holdings must be considered. Many of the profits gained through logging activities in PNG have also gone to foreign owners and much of the cultural life of forest dwellers is closely linked to the flora and fauna found in the rainforests. Extensive logging has impacts on many different aspects of the people’s lives.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT, GEOGRAPHY)
45. FUNERALS: in Torembi
When people die in Papua New Guinea, special ceremonies mark their transition from this life to the spirit world. In the village of Torembi, in the Sepik region, the body of the individual is first buried on the outskirts of the village, with food and belongings necessary for the journey ahead. Later, a symbolic cremation ceremony is held at which personal possessions are either burnt or offered to the fire. These possessions may include bilums, combs, bowls and other items of individual significance to the deceased person.Another public ceremony is held in the evening of the same day as the symbolic cremation, with women and children inside one house, and men in a nearby haus tambaran. An effigy of the deceased person is prepared in advance and set up in a screened-off area. The mourners bow down before this and make offerings. There are also official mourners, traditionally covered in white clay, who lead the mourning as the spirit of the deceased joins those of his or her ancestors.
(Related entries: CRY SONGS, HAUS TAMBARAN)
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46. GARDENS: in Torembi
All over Papua New Guinea, people maintain gardens which provide them with much of their food supply. This is especially so away from towns and cities. Every family in Torembi, in the Sepik region, for instance, has a garden. Small clearings are made in flood-free sections of the nearby forest, and fences protect crops from foraging pigs. Commonly grown foods include tropical fruits, green vegetables, sugar cane, corn, onions, peanuts, taro and yams. Tobacco is also grown. The right to work in and harvest from a garden comes with family connections. At her marriage, a woman gains the right to use the lands of her husband’s clan, and this right continues even after her husband’s death.(Related entries: LAND OWNERSHIP, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)
47. GEOGRAPHY
Papua New Guinea is 160 kilometres north of the northernmost tip of Queensland, and a few degrees south of the Equator. It is a land of deep valleys and highlands, open savanna, dense rainforests, mangrove swamps and islands. One quarter of the country is over a kilometre high, with several mountains rising to over 4 kilometres above sea level.Geographically, PNG is quite a young country, located between Australia’s stable land mass and the more mobile Pacific ocean basin. Throughout the country there are numerous hot springs and at least one hundred volcanoes, some still active. Earth tremors and earthquakes are reasonably common.
The Central Ranges form the ‘backbone’ of PNG, from which many vast rivers flow to the sea. The largest of these are the Sepik and the Fly. The Fly is so large that it carries more fresh water than all of Australia’s rivers combined.PNG’s multitude of islands include New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville and the Admiralty Islands. Many are small, but some are hundreds of kilometres in length.
Differences in landforms and accessibility within the country have been significant in developing and maintaining an extraordinary, rich diversity of peoples and cultures, as well as flora and fauna, over thousands of years.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, LANGUAGE, VOLCANOES)
48. GOVERNMENT: - Local and provincial
Papua New Guinea is divided into nineteen provinces. These evolved from the administrative districts which operated under Australian colonial rule prior to PNG’s independence.In each province, an elected provincial government was established to provide services efficiently at the local level. The provincial government is the middle tier of government and manages most of the day-to-day services such as health, education, agriculture and business development. There are also local government councils, which typically represent a number of villages. They are responsible for such things as maintenance of bridges, roads, buildings, water supply and the provision of other community services.
Although PNG has a democratically elected national government, traditional, village-based politics are still significant. Power has never been hereditary. Instead, the leader or 'big man' might be an effective speaker who can convince the rest of the village to follow him, or he might gain power through his generosity, or his wealth in land and pigs, which are valued currency in traditional PNG society.
There are few women in positions of power. While equality between men and women is written into the national constitution, in reality, power remains largely in the hands of men, who have by tradition dominated village politics and decision making.
There are two traditions which sometimes conflict with the aims of organised governments. The payback system, in which, following an offence against someone, their relatives demand violent retribution or the payment of money or pigs, and the wantok system which demands loyalty to family and to language group above other loyalties.
(Related entries: GOVERNMENT: National, PAYBACK, PROVINCES, WANTOK)
49. GOVERNMENT: National
Partly because of its colonial past, Papua New Guinea’s style of government, when it became independent, was based on both the Australian and the British systems. The British sovereign is the Head of State and is represented by the Governor-General. There are three levels of government: national, provincial and local. Members of Parliament are elected by popular vote. All adults are eligible to vote from the age of 18. The Prime Minister is chosen by the majority in Parliament, and appointed by the Governor-General. The elected party has a five-year term of office.
Because of the diversity of languages, ballot papers display pictures of the candidates. Once voting is completed, counting them is difficult as many of the polling booths are so isolated.(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT: Local and provincial, INDEPENDENCE, NATIONAL CAPITAL, NATIONAL FLAG, PARLIAMENT HOUSE, POLITICAL SYSTEM)
50. HAUS MARIT
Haus marit is the Pidgin word for the home of a married couple.(Related entries: HAUS 'N BOI, MARRIAGE, PIDGIN, WEDDINGS)
51. HAUS 'N BOI
Haus 'n boi is the local euphemism for the men’s ceremonial house which is more correctly called the haus tambaran. The haus 'n boi is the province of men only. Women are not permitted inside.
A liklik (or little) haus ’n boi is a small shelter built to one side of a haus marit, where the man of the house (and his teenage sons, if any) can talk with friends free from interruption. The men will often sleep here. They will also have a bed in the haus tambaran.
(Related entries: HAUS MARIT, HAUS TAMBARAN)
52. HAUS SIK
Haus sik is the Pidgin word for hospital. When used in the village of Torembi, it refers to the local medical clinic where nursing staff and medical aides can treat minor ailments and injuries. The Torembi haus sik has a special focus on the health of babies and young children. The mortality rate of very young children is very high in Torembi and all over Papua New Guinea, with illnesses such as gastric problems and malaria taking a high toll. Lack of clean water poses a particular threat to health.At the twice-weekly baby health clinic, babies are regularly weighed, vaccinated and checked for general wellbeing as well as normal growth and development. The haus sik is at the Torembi mission, which is up to an hour’s walk from the village, over muddy paths and slippery bridges. However, as many women in Torembi have lost a number of babies to illness, the clinic is a very busy place where women may have to wait several hours to be seen.
(Related entry: HEALTH, MALARIA, TOREMBI)
53. HAUS TAMBARAN
Elaborate architecture is common in Papua New Guinea, and perhaps the best-known example is the haus tambaran, or spirit house, of the Sepik region.The haus tambaran has traditionally been the main focus of village life, and the care taken in its construction and decoration shows its importance and the special status of those who built it. The haus tambaran is the province of men only and a declaration of the sacred knowledge which only men are privileged to know.
There, men take decisions about the village after prolonged debate in which a special debating stool is used.
The haus tambaran is decorated with the faces of ancestor spirits and with totems of village clans. In the village of Torembi, one of the clan totems is the tarragaw or sea eagle. Outside the haus tambaran there is a large dancing ground, a sacred site where celebrations and ceremonies involving the whole community traditionally take place. Once, this area would have been decorated with the remains of enemies killed in battle, placed there in celebration of victory. Today, the decorations are likely to relate to the spirits of the community groups represented in the haus tambaran.
Personal possessions belonging to the men are stored inside the haus tambaran, as well as ceremonial masks and sacred musical instruments.
There are usually two spirit houses in each village, one for each of the two moieties or groups of clans into which a tribe is divided. In Torembi, one moiety is connected to the spirits of the earth, the other to the spirits of the sky.
In PNG the men’s role has changed significantly. The defence of the village, traditionally their responsibility, is no longer a high priority. The haus tambaran is a place where men now spend many hours together during the day. The workload of women, however, has changed very little.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, DEBATING STOOL, RELIGION, VILLAGE LIFE)
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54. HEALTH
Health care is provided by both government and non-government agencies. There are large hospitals in the major centres and many smaller hospitals and clinics in provincial towns. The Papua New Guinean health care system places a strong emphasis on providing primary care at the local level, particularly in rural areas. Common health problems in PNG include insect-borne diseases such as malaria and infectious or contagious diseases such as pneumonia, respiratory infections, skin diseases and diarrhoea. Pneumonia and malaria are the leading causes of death. In recent times, the threat of typhoid fever has also emerged. Both maternal and infant mortality rates are relatively high.The national government has an organised malaria control program which focuses on reducing the population of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. The government also supports national vaccination programs for children. Lack of clean water and inadequate systems for disposal of human waste, both problems throughout the country, lead to gastric and other conditions, especially in young children. Another local health problem is caused by the common habit of chewing betel nut mixed with lime. While the betel nut is not in itself dangerous, mixing it with lime can cause dental problems and, in the most serious cases, cancer in the mouth. The Papua New Guinea Government supports education programs which discourage the practice of mixing the two.
(Related entries: HAUS SIK, MALARIA, MOSQUITOES, POPULATION)
55. HISTORY: early from 50 000 years ago to 1800s
It is estimated that people first came to Papua New Guinea over 50 000 years ago, probably by boat from the islands to the west. At that time the area was much colder and there was no sea dividing what is now the island of New Guinea from the Australian mainland. Stone axes have been found which are up to 40 000 years old. By around 30 000 years ago, people were moving into the highlands and cultivating crops, using fire to clear parts of the forest and digging ditches to carry water.The people of PNG were among the first gardeners in the world and, when they started growing their own food, it was also the start of village life.
Generally, men and women lived in separate houses with the men’s time devoted to the defence of the village. From an early age, boys learned to make and use bows, arrows, spears and shields, as well as building houses, making gardens and — importantly — learning to fight. Girls and young boys lived with the women, who were responsible for tending gardens and domestic animals, food preparation and food gathering.(Related entry: HISTORY: recent)
56. HISTORY: recent — 1800s to present
Isolated by the rugged landscape, the people of Papua New Guinea and its many surrounding islands developed hundreds of different languages and dialects, with great variety in religions and cultural expression. The coastal areas were visited by many European traders over the years, especially during the nineteenth century, and there was also contact with people from the many neighbouring islands, for example, those now part of Indonesia.In 1848 the Dutch claimed the western part of the island. The eastern half was split in two when Germany annexed the north, and Britain the south. With their superior weapons, these foreign invaders defeated any villagers who opposed them.
In the 1870s, European missionaries began to establish themselves around what is now Port Moresby. In 1884, the British declared the Papuan region of what is now Papua New Guinea a British protectorate, introducing laws and making Port Moresby its administrative centre. In 1906 Britain handed over Papua’s administration to the Australian government.
During World War I, Australia occupied German New Guinea, but temporarily lost it to the Japanese in World War II. After the war, Papua New Guinea was returned to the trusteeship of Australia by the United Nations in 1946. In 1975, PNG became an independent parliamentary democracy.
(Related entries: EUROPEAN COLONISATION, HISTORY: early, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea)
57. HOUSING: in Torembi
Housing in Papua New Guinea differs from region to region, depending upon climate and building materials available from the local environment. For example, houses in the Sawos village of Torembi are made with local materials and designed for protection from both hot sun and frequent heavy rain. Wood from nearby forests is tied together with strips of cane, kanda, for the frame. Sago leaves, folded and pinned together, form shingles of thatch for the roof, morota. Planks spilt from trunks of limbum palms provide flooring. Walls are made from stems of large sago palm leaves, pangal. The houses are usually long, single-roomed structures with doors at each end. They are built above the ground, on posts, to avoid the damp. The covered space beneath the house serves as an area for domestic pigs and chickens. There are no chimneys and smoke from cooking fires finds its way out through the roof or the spaces above the walls which allow air to circulate. Fires are set on a thick, hardened clay hearth.(Related entries: HAUS’ N BOI, HAUS MARIT, HAUS TAMBARAN, TOREMBI, VILLAGE LIFE)
58. HUMIDITY
Papua New Guinea is one of the cloudiest countries in the world. Moisture-laden winds are constantly blowing over the coast from the warm tropical seas, so that the atmosphere is almost always humid. There are frequent thunderstorms, especially in the more mountainous areas.In the Sawos village of Torembi, in the lower Sepik region, there is often a fog at sunrise, which disappears as the sun rises, and skies clear by late morning. Clouds begin to build up in the afternoon and there is often a thunderstorm around four or five o’clock in the afternoon.
(Related entries: CLIMATE, GEOGRAPHY, RAINFALL, TEMPERATURE)
59. INDEPENDENCE
Immediately prior to independence, Papua New Guinea was the Australian Territory of New Guinea, under the administration of the Australian federal government. After World War II, Australia began to assist PNG to prepare for self-government. The present system of government, in the form of the First House of Assembly, was set up in 1964 with a mix of appointed and elected members. The Second House of Assembly was set up in 1968 with ten appointed members as well as an increasing number of elected members. In 1972, when the Third House of Assembly was elected, a new Constitution was drafted. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 October 1973, and finally became a fully independent nation on 16 September 1975.The first prime minister was Michael Somare. He had been the Chief Minister of a democratically elected government in 1972, leading the nation to self-government in 1973 and finally to independence in 1975.
Papua New Guinea is a member of the British Commonwealth, with the reigning British monarch as Head of State, represented by an appointed Governor-General.
(Related entries: GOVERNMENT: National, HISTORY: recent, POLITICAL SYSTEM)
60. INITIATION - into adulthood
The transition from childhood to adulthood has traditionally been celebrated and formalised in Papua New Guinea through initiation ceremonies. In the Sepik region, boys are initiated within the haus tambaran, where initiated men pass on special and secret knowledge.In times past in Papua New Guinea, many Christian missionaries discouraged initiation, considering it to be sinful, and for some time initiation was less common. However, in some places these practices are being revived as a way of reasserting traditional culture.
Less is known about the initiation of girls into womanhood, which occurs within Sawos society, in areas around Torembi. The practice is apparently not as widespread as the initiation of boys.
(Related entries: BILAS, HAUS TAMBARAN, RELIGION)
61. IRIAN JAYA
Papua New Guinea occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea whilst Irian Jaya occupies the western half. Irian Jaya was formerly Dutch New Guinea, until annexation by Indonesia in 1969. It is the largest of Indonesia’s provinces and rich in natural resources.The indigenous population of Irian Jaya is Melanesian, as are the majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens. The province, like Papua New Guinea, is characterised by great diversity in language and culture. Large numbers of Indonesian settlers have moved into the area over recent years. The political situation within Irian Jaya is volatile, with many people from the indigenous community unhappy with Indonesian sovereignty and its local administration.
(Related entries: HISTORY: Recent, MELANESIA)
62. KINA
The kina is the main unit of currency in Papua New Guinea. It is a large coin with a hole in the centre. A kina is divided into one hundred equal parts, each called a toea. The names kina and toea, recall two types of special shells which were traditionally used as money in Papua New Guinea.Banknotes come in a number of denominations including K20, K10, K5 and K2. Banknotes and coins display designs which show aspects of Papua New Guinea life, history and culture. In February, 2000, K10 was worth approximately $5.00 Australian.
(Related entries: ECONOMY, MARKETS, MONEY)
63. LAE
Lae is Papua New Guinea’s second largest city, situated on the north eastern coast of the main island. It is the administrative and business centre of the Morobe province and is the nation’s commercial, manufacturing and shipping centre. It has a deep water port which enables all kinds of shipping to utilise its facilities. Lae has a very significant role in trade and industry for Papua New Guinea.(Related entries: CLIMATE, MANUFACTURING, PORT MORESBY, PROVINCES)
64. LAND OWNERSHIP: Papua New Guinea
Traditionally, land ownership has been energetically defended and fought for. Conflict about the protection of rights to the use of land, or to extend ownership, was common. Today, the majority of land is still owned by clans according to traditional freehold arrangements. Very little of this land ownership is formally registered.Ownership of land in Papua New Guinea could be characterised as individuals or families holding the land in trust on behalf of the community. No money or other payment has necessarily changed hands, but ownership is accepted and recognised by the community and carries over from one generation to the next.
Owners of land can allow other family members to use the land and married women are entitled to use the land of their husband’s family. Transfer of land ownership can take place but only after considerable negotiation and payment of compensation. Negotiation to use land for government development or commercial projects requires sensitive handling, taking into account traditional arrangements and their implications for future generations.
If families leave their traditional land holdings and move to other parts of the country, for instance, to pursue employment in urban areas, their relatives sometimes resume their rights to the use of that land. It is difficult to re-establish rights to that land after an absence.
(Related entries: FORESTRY, GARDENS, MARRIAGE, MINING, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)
65. LANGUAGE
The people of Papua New Guinea, separated from each other by the rugged terrain, have developed a diverse range of languages and cultures. Over 700 languages and dialects are spoken in Papua New Guinea: the most diverse and numerous of any country in the world.Hiri Motu, which is spoken in the area around the capital, Port Moresby, is the most widely used local language. The use of Pidgin or Tok Pisin is also widespread. It is a mixture of English, German, French and local languages and was originally developed as a language of trade with Europeans in the nineteenth century. It has also proved to be a useful common language for the people of PNG.
The official language of PNG is English, used in international affairs, in government and in education as a language of instruction. Generally speaking, people in Papua New Guinea might speak their local language and perhaps one or two languages used by neighbouring communities, as well as Pidgin and some English, depending upon how much formal education they have received.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, EDUCATION, PIDGIN, WANTOK)
66. LEGAL SYSTEM
The legal system of Papua New Guinea is based on the Australian system, which in turn is based on the English system. The Supreme Court is the highest in the land and the final court of appeal. There are also national, district, local and village courts. At the lowest level, village courts hear cases such as robbery or assault. Magistrates who operate these courts are selected from local communities. Hearings in the higher courts are conducted in English.(Related entry: POLITICAL SYSTEM)
67. MALARIA
Malaria is a common health problem in Papua New Guinea, especially in areas such as the Sepik provinces where mosquitoes, which carry the disease, breed in huge numbers near the river and its many tributaries. Malaria causes intermittent and recurring fevers. Many people die of malaria in Papua New Guinea and it is especially dangerous to young children. Netting, made from the same sort of bush string as is used in the making of bilums, can be hung around beds to prevent mosquitoes from biting at night. Cotton mosquito nets can also be purchased, though these can be expensive. New strains of malaria are appearing which are resistant to the existing treatments. This adds a degree of urgency to the need to reduce mosquito populations and for research into inexpensive treatments for malaria. Current medication is too expensive for most people in PNG.(Related entries: BILUM, HAUS SIK, HEALTH, MOSQUITOES)
68. MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing makes up a small percentage of Papua New Guinea’s overall industrial profile. Most manufacturing is in consumer goods, such as furniture, processed food, beer, soft drinks and cigarettes.(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FISHING, FORESTRY, MINING)
69. MARKETS: in Torembi
Local markets are an important source of food and goods in Papua New Guinea. For example, there are three markets attended by people from around the Torembi area. On Tuesdays a market is held on the banks of a lagoon close to the Sepik River, at some distance from Torembi, and a second market is held on Thursdays alongside a small stream halfway between Torembi and the Sepik. Women from the Sepik villages arrive by canoe, while those from Torembi and neighbouring communities walk in. They come to exchange vegetables and sago for fish. Little or no money changes hands at this market as barter is the traditional way to trade.Every Sunday there is a local market held after church, beside the airstrip at the Torembi Mission. At this market, goods are bought and sold for cash instead of being exchanged. Selling items at this market is one way in which women can earn money.
(Related entries: BARTER and EXCHANGE, ECONOMY, GARDENS, KINA, MONEY)
70. MARRIAGE: Sawos
In Sawos society, marriage to a member of the same clan is not permitted. When a man invites a woman from another clan to be his wife, her family requires compensation, commonly known as a bride price. While the bride price is being gathered, which can take some time, a young couple often live together at the house of the groom’s father, but before doing so must ask permission at meetings involving elders from both their clans. It is common for a couple to have one or two children by the time the official wedding ceremony takes place.Once the marriage has been formalised, the bride is considered part of her husband’s family, rather than her birth family. She gains rights to use the land and gardens of her husband’s clan, and this right continues even if her husband dies.
Women’s songs, which form part of the marriage celebrations, tell of the trials and tribulations which face married women. For women, married life carries a great deal of responsibility — food production and preparation which involves sago scraping at least three times a week, tending the garden and care of domestic animals, as well as the care of children and general housework. If a man is widowed, he will usually remarry, as a woman’s contribution in the marriage partnership is essential. If a woman is widowed, remarriage is less likely, as she has access to the land of her husband’s clan to provide her and her children with food and some income. In the past, it was not unusual for men to have more than one wife, but this custom is rarely followed now.
(Related entries: BRIDE PRICE, CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, SAGO SCRAPING, WOMEN)
71. MELANESIA
The majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens are Melanesian. Melanesia is a large geographic area which includes many of the islands of the south-west Pacific — the island of New Guinea, the Admiralty Islands, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and the western islands of Fiji among many others. Polynesia lies to the east and Micronesia to the north.Melanesian Pidgin, Tok Pisin, is a language which developed in the late nineteenth century as a language of trade in the region.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, PIDGIN)
72. MINING
The mining industry plays an important role in Papua New Guinea’s overall economy. PNG has rich deposits of natural resources including gold, copper ore, silver and oil. Even in the late nineteenth century prospectors were drawn to PNG in search of gold, which was found in considerable amounts.Mining is the industry sector which is generally believed to have the greatest potential for PNG’s successful and sustainable development. However, as huge copper and gold mines have been carved out of the land, concerns have been raised about the resulting pollution of the environment and the loss of traditional lands.
Foreign-owned mining companies often provide transport, health and education services as part of their local development initiatives. Companies must enter into complex and sensitive negotiations with local landowners. Companies can expect to renegotiate agreements over time with subsequent generations of the landowning families.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT, FORESTRY, LAND OWNERSHIP, TOURISM)
73. MISSION: Torembi
The village of Torembi, in the lower Sepik area, is in a region of Papua New Guinea which is part of the missionary program of the Catholic Church. The first missionaries moved into the area in 1933 and the mission station in Torembi was established in 1950. It was built in a grass-covered clearing suitable for an airstrip and comprised a church, health clinic, post office, air freight service and school. The airstrip is important not only to the Church, but to the local community, with flights landing there almost daily. The majority of Torembi residents are Catholic. In recent times the priests have been Australian or American and the church deacon a local Torembi man. Many of the light aircraft pilots are missionaries from overseas.(Related entries: CHRISTIANITY, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea, RELIGION)
74. MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea
In the late nineteenth century the European colonial powers divided the island of New Guinea into a number of areas, each governed by a colonial power. What is now Irian Jaya was governed by the Dutch and what is now Papua New Guinea was divided between Britain and Germany. Along with the colonial administrators came missionaries from a variety of Christian churches. As European administrators and traders ventured further into the country, missionaries followed.Missionary activity was especially significant after World War II when many missionaries moved into previously restricted areas. Like other foreign influences, the coming of Christianity to New Guinea brought many changes, both positive and negative. Historically, a great deal of work has been done by missionaries, particularly in health and education, and in some cases the provision of employment.
Before World War II virtually all schools throughout what is now Papua New Guinea were established and run by missions with little or no government assistance. There have, however, been problems which inevitably arise when the differing values, beliefs and social systems of cultures meet, and sometimes clash. The majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens are now officially Christian, though many aspects of traditional beliefs and culture are maintained.
(Related entries: BILAS, CHRISTIANITY, INITIATION, MISSION: Torembi, RELIGION)
75. MONEY
In the past, people in Papua New Guinea used items of value as money. This money would be used in transactions other than those involving barter. For instance, large pearl-coloured oyster shells called kina were used to pay for things in the Highlands and on the Sepik. And in Milne Bay Province, white armshells called toea were exchanged between men of importance. Other items of value used as money included cowrie shells, boar's tusks, necklaces made of dog's teeth or shells and seeds, clay pots, other tools and live pigs.Today, banknotes and coins are used. Before Independence, foreign countries which governed Papua New Guinea used their own currency. Since Independence in 1975, Papua New Guinea has had its own banknotes and coins. The main unit of currency is called the kina. A kina is divided into one hundred equal parts, each called a toea. People still use barter at village or local markets in order to obtain goods, especially, food items. But the currency of kina and toea is at the basis of the national economy.
(Related entries: BARTER AND EXCHANGE, ECONOMY, KINA)
76. MOSQUITOES
Mosquitoes are a variety of gnat. The female punctures the skin of humans and animals to suck blood. In doing so, some species of mosquitoes also transmit disease. The World Health Organisation estimates that between 1.5 and 2.7 million people die of malaria worldwide each year. The great majority of these deaths are in Africa, but malaria is also the most common mosquito-borne disease in Papua New Guinea. Mosquitoes also carry other diseases which pose a serious threat to health, such as dengue fever. Mosquitoes breed in their millions in tropical climates with hot, humid conditions, and especially in warm, swampy environments such as those in the lower reaches of the great rivers, for example, the swamps surrounding the village of Torembi.(Related entries: HAUS SIK, HEALTH, MALARIA)
MUSIC: Sawos
Music has a role in all the celebrations and rituals, secular and religious, that are a part of the daily lives of the Sawos people. Music, singing and dance are woven into the work of the women in particular, as well as into story-telling and social events.Music is an important part of the ceremonies which mark significant life events: marriage, death and the passage from childhood to manhood.
Nowadays most villages also have their own string band, usually made up of teenagers, and they play in competition with other villages. Contemporary local and foreign music is also heard through the radio broadcasting services.
(Related entries: CRY SONGS, DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, FLUTES, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS : Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed, SAGO SONGS, SAWOS)
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos
Anthropologists and musicologists categorise instruments according to which part of the instrument vibrates to make the sound. Instruments with vibrating strings are called chordophones; instruments which themselves vibrate are called idiophones; instruments which rely on the movement of air are called aerophones; instruments which use some kind of membrane stretched across an opening are called membranophones.In Sawos music, instruments from all these categories are used. Instruments are made from local raw materials: bamboo, the sago palm and local hardwoods. Drums are an important feature of Sawos music and communication. Made from local hardwoods, drums are used to communicate across distances and throughout villages.
Particular instruments, such as the garamut drums and the long flutes, are said to be the voices of the spirits and their sound indicates the presence of those spirits. They are kept in the haus tambaran. Since the men of the Sawos are the keepers of religious rites and ceremonies, only adult, initiated men are allowed to see, handle and play these instruments.
Other instruments, such as the kundu drums and Jew’s harp, susap, are used for recreational purposes. Many Sawos instruments are tuned to be played in pairs, sharing the melody between two players.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed, SAWOS)
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos - Stringed
The musical bow, pangal sak sak, is a chordophone. It is made from the stalk of a sago palm leaf and is played by striking the string with two pieces of hardwood at various positions.The Jew’s harp, susap, is also a chordophone, because it uses the principle of a 'string' vibrating in the mouth of the player. It is a traditional instrument used for recreational music.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, SAWOS)
NATIONAL CAPITAL
The capital of Papua New Guinea is Port Moresby. It is situated on the southern coast in the rain shadow of the Owen Stanley Ranges. Port Moresby receives little rain and is very dry in June-August, but green and lush during the monsoon season, November-April. The annual rainfall is 1 195 mm and the average daily maximum temperature is 32° Celsius.Moresby was named by the British captain, John Moresby, who mapped the southern coastline and sailed into the bay around which the city is now built, in 1873. He named the harbour after his father, Admiral Sir Fairfax Moresby. Port Moresby, as it was later called, is the centre for the national Parliament and is also PNG’s second most important port. The harbour is always busy with shipping traffic.
(Related entries: NATIONAL EMBLEM, NATIONAL FLAG, PORT MORESBY)