CULTURES IN CONTEXT: SAWOS
I'm Dr. John Tyman.
I lived with the Sawos people of the village of Torembi in 1981 and '82,
and again in '94. Torembi is actually made up of three separate villages,
called Torembi 1, 2 and 3, as well as the Torembi Christian mission.
It's in East Sepik province, not far from the coast as the crow flies,
but difficult to reach overland. I travelled there by light aircraft. There's
an airstrip near the mission.
I got to know many people in Torembi and they allowed me to take many
photographs and collect hours of sound recordings. In this part of the
database, I can introduce you to some of the people I met as they went
about their daily lives or took part in family and community celebrations.
1. AGRICULTURE
Small-scale farming or gardening has always been extremely important to the people of Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, families grew a range of foodstuffs in gardens - enough to satisfy their own immediate needs. These foods were augmented with other fresh produce, which could be gathered from the surrounding environment. The soil in PNG is not sufficiently fertile for intensive farming over long periods of time, so gardens were left fallow for many years to recover nutrients, while the people cleared other areas for planting.
More recently, as the population has grown, especially in urban areas, the country as a whole is no longer self-sufficient in food production. Some food products are being imported. Cash crops are being grown in increasing quantities, including coffee, coconuts (for copra), rubber, tea and palm oil. The small but developing agricultural sector is being encouraged by the national government to enhance export opportunities.
(Related entries: CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, GARDENS, GEOGRAPHY, PALM OIL, SHIFTING CULTIVATION, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)
2. AID
Papua New Guinea receives a large amount of financial and other aid, especially from Australia, to assist in its overall development. The Australian Government’s aid program is managed by AusAID, the Australian Agency for International Development. As Australia has been involved with the administration of PNG for much of this century, PNG receives the largest portion of the Australian aid program. The overall aim of the program is to promote sustainable development, self-reliance, stability and social cohesion in PNG and to assist with economic reforms. Australia has provided budget support since 1975. This aid has gradually been reduced, and the aid focus will continue to shift towards directly supporting individual development projects. These projects are decided upon in consultation with the Papua New Guinea Government. Aid-assisted projects have included road resurfacing, bridge maintenance, immunisation programs, communication equipment for aviation, maintenance of rural air-strips, school construction, teacher training, improvements to rural health services, assistance to policing services, drought and disaster relief and rural development projects.
Other providers of aid to PNG include New Zealand, Germany, the World
Bank and the United Nations Development program.
(Related entries: AUSTRALIA, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY)
3. ART: Contemporary
In Papua New Guinea, art has never been seen as something separate from life.
Creative expression has always been part of day-to-day living and there is no tradition of the professional artist. PNG is changing rapidly, and there are now many professional artists expressing their ideas using both traditional art forms and new forms of design and materials, finding new ways to express their complex heritage in different circumstances. In PNG there is a commitment to the power of contemporary art as a way of reflecting the new social and political experiences of the people and the great vitality and diversity of the nation. Because of the cultural diversity of PNG’s population, as well as the wide range of environments and circumstances affecting its people, there are enormous variations in style of creative expression and artistic tradition. But while contemporary artists may be inspired by the work of their ancestors, they are not constrained by tradition, because they are making their art for a much wider audience than their local community. Contemporary PNG artists, unlike their ancestors, have the opportunity to communicate their ideas, beliefs and hopes to a wider world.
(Related entries: ART: Agatha Waramin, ART: David Lassisi, ART: Joe
Nalo, ART: Taba Silau, ART: Sepik, PARLIAMENT HOUSE, HAUS TAMBARAN)
/tyman/sawos/audio/art_sepi.mp3
4. ART: Agatha Waramin
Agatha Waramin is a well-known artist and expert bilum maker. She lived for many years in Port Moresby, but originally came from Wewak in the East Sepik province. In her work she uses both natural and synthetic materials. She has invented new patterns and colours, and has learnt how to make bilum styles from all over the country.
She is also a teacher, believing that young people in PNG today should
learn how to make bilums using natural materials and traditional dyes.
For this reason she is active in campaigning to conserve the forest environment
from which the bark, dyes and fibres are gathered.
Agatha Waramin has been successful in a country where very few women
have full-time careers as visual artists.
(Related entries: ART: Contemporary, BILUM)
/tyman/sawos/audio/art_bilu.mp3
5. ART: David Lassisi
David Lassisi is a contemporary Papua New Guinean artist, born in 1955 in New Ireland province. He studied graphic arts at the Creative Arts Centre in Port Moresby and represented Papua New Guinea at the World Crafts Council Conference in Mexico in 1976. He has participated in the provincial New Ireland government and studied in the United States as a Fulbright Scholar.
(Related entry: ART: Contemporary)
/tyman/sawos/audio/art_cont.mp3
6. ART: Joe Nalo
Joe Nalo, born in 1951 on Johnston Island, is a contemporary Papua New Guinean artist. While still at school he won awards for his art work. He trained as a teacher and taught Expressive Arts and general subjects in Morobe province. He became headmaster of Salamaua Boarding School and studied art with Lucy Walker, an Australian artist. He won a scholarship to attend the Creative Arts Centre in Port Moresby. Joe Nalo taught at the National Arts School, and later became the Chief Curator of Contemporary Art at the PNG National Museum and Art Gallery. Meanwhile, he has continued with his own work for exhibitions and commissions.
(Related entry: ART: Contemporary)
7. ART: Sepik
Art from the Sepik region is characterised by original and striking creative expression and Sepik is probably the most widely recognised of Papua New Guinea's artistic styles. It is virtually impossible to make generalisations about Sepik art, so diverse and rich are its expressions. Design elements differ throughout the region, with many varieties of motifs, methods and materials. Sepik art is famous for spectacular feather headdresses and elaborate dance costumes, some over 5 metres tall, as well as drums, painted masks made of bark, shields, sculptured figures, canoes and other carved objects, such as decorative hooks from which to hang personal possessions.
Part of the beauty and expressiveness of Sepik art lies in its traditional spiritual significance and in its representation of the spiritual power of ancestors. For example, inside the haus tambaran, or spirit house, intricately carved masks are made to be part of initiation ceremonies in which boys are prepared for manhood. In the Sepik region, the artistic tradition is reflected in everyday items as well as objects of ceremonial significance. The abundance and richness of Sepik art forms can be partly explained by the trading and communication made possible by the Sepik River itself. Today, tourists enthusiastically purchase Sepik art, much of which is now produced specifically for sale.
(Related entries: ART: Contemporary, HAUS TAMBARAN, SEPIK REGION)
/tyman/sawos/audio/art_bila.mp3
/tyman/sawos/audio/art_htam.mp3
/tyman/sawos/audio/art_pahs.mp3
8. ART: Taba Silau
Taba Silau is a contemporary Papua New Guinean artist. He was born in 1957 in Madang province. After attending high school he won a scholarship to attend the National Arts School. He has exhibited widely, his work often reflecting the traditional stories from his home in the Gogol River basin of Madang province.
(Related entry: ART: Contemporary)
9. AUSTRALIA
Australia has had a close association with Papua New Guinea this century. In 1905, Australia took over the administration of the then Papua, which covered the former British New Guinea. In 1919, after the end of World War I, German New Guinea became a mandated territory of Australia. During World War II New Guinea was occupied by the Japanese. It was returned to Australia as a trust territory in 1945, until the nation of Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975. PNG receives considerable amounts of financial and other aid, especially from Australia, to assist in its overall development. PNG receives the largest portion of the Australian aid program, reflecting Australia’s responsibilities towards its former territory.
(Related entries: AID, EUROPEAN COLONISATION, EXPORT AND IMPORT, HISTORY – Recent, INDEPENDENCE)
10. BARTER AND EXCHANGE
Exchanging goods for other goods, or exchanging goods for work, without the use of money, is called barter. In this type of trade, those involved must agree to the exchange. Barter is important in many parts of Papua New Guinea where people get most of what they need from their environment and can add to this by bartering with people from neighbouring areas which produce different items. For example, the women of Torembi harvest sago from the local swamps, then exchange it for fish caught by women who live on the banks of the Sepik river.
(Related entries: ECONOMY, KINA, MARKETS, MONEY)
11. BILAS: Body Decoration
Body decoration is seen universally as a form of creative expression. People wear makeup and jewellery, acquire tattoos, wear hats, sunglasses and all kinds of accessories. In Papua New Guinea, body decoration or self-adornment is known in Pidgin as bilas (see Pidgin). Just as there are many different cultures in PNG, so forms of bilas vary in style and meaning, and can reveal aspects of the identity of the person or the community to which the wearer belongs. Different colours, designs and materials have different meanings.
The skin itself has been the focus of much bilas. Traditionally, ear lobes and nostrils are pierced, then decorated with shells and other ornaments. In the East Sepik region, the chests and upper backs of young men are scarred during their initiation, often in patterns representing their animal totem. Face and body painting are also important. Natural materials were used to make paints, with different groups having traditional colours. Today, modern paints, as well as natural ones, are often used for the same purpose.
Bilas is especially widespread and finely developed in the Highlands where there is little or no tradition of carving. The creation of ceremonial dance costumes and wigs is important in this region. Some of the most striking examples of bilas are the great masks, often carried on the heads of dancers. The Asaro mudmen of the Eastern Highlands wear a headpiece made mainly of clay plastered over a structure in which eye sockets, ears and mouth have been created. The dancers’ bodies are covered with the same clay.
Many forms of bilas are no longer practised although ear piercing is
still popular. One of the main reasons for this decline is the colonisation
of PNG by Europeans. In the past many missionaries thought bilas to be
sinful and discouraged the practice, especially the ritual scarification
associated with initiation.
In PNG today, most people wear contemporary clothing and traditional
forms of bilas, including body adornment, costumes and headdresses are
usually worn only on special occasions or at events attended by tourists.
In recent times, the wearing of bilas has been revived as a way of asserting
traditional culture and national identity.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, CLOTHING)
12. BILUM
All over Papua New Guinea, people carry handwoven string bags, often beautifully coloured and decorated. These are called bilums, a Melanesian Pidgin word (see Pidgin). Traditionally, bilums are created by women using natural bush string made from plant fibres. These fibres are beaten, washed and shredded before being twisted into string.
Bilums are made with a single long string, using a looping technique and no knots. It is very time consuming. The string is fed through every loop and has to be kept to a manageable length, so additional lengths of string are added again and again as the work progresses. The resulting bags though, are very flexible, enormously strong and can expand to extraordinary sizes. Bilums are used to carry everything from firewood and sago to babies. They may also be used as garments or ritual adornments, as items of exchange or as gifts.
Over many generations, older women have handed down the knowledge and skill required to make bilums. In recent times, women have started to use new materials, including brightly-coloured cotton, plastic and synthetic yarns to create new, intricate and beautiful designs. By making and selling bilums, women can also achieve some economic independence within their local communities.
(Related entries: ART: Agatha Waramin, SAGO SCRAPING, WOMEN)
13. BIRDS OF PARADISE
Papua New Guinea abounds with birdlife; around 700 species have been recorded. Perhaps the best known of these are the birds of paradise, of which there are about 40 varieties. Birds of paradise are characterised by their beautiful plumage. The male birds are especially colourful, using their plumage to attract a mate. Many birds of paradise have in the past been killed for their feathers, to be used in traditional bilas, or as items of trade. Today, birds of paradise are protected by government legislation. So synonymous is the bird of paradise with Papua New Guinea, that one is featured on the national flag.
(Related entries: BILAS, FLORA AND FAUNA, NATIONAL FLAG)
14. BRIDE PRICE
The premarriage ritual of the bride price ceremony is one of the most significant celebrations in Sawos society, and for the people of the village of Torembi. Women play the major role in food production. Because of this, when a man invites a woman to be his wife, her family requires compensation, commonly known as a bride price. This also serves to keep money circulating in the community and binds it together in a complex pattern of mutual indebtedness - since all members of the groom’s clan are expected to contribute.
The ceremony involves the groom’s family bestowing gifts on the family of the bride, thus sealing the marriage contract. There are three stages and the whole process can take over a year or two, as it is impossible to raise large amounts of money overnight. In the final stage of the celebration, amidst singing, dancing and music, the bride is escorted to her new home. During this stage there will often be dancing by the women and various ‘choirs’ singing wedding songs. In these songs, the woman is given advice about marriage - bringing up children, gardening, sago preparation and household tasks, amongst other things.
(Related entries: CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, MARRIAGE, SAWOS, WEDDINGS)
15. CACAO
Cacao, from which cocoa and chocolate are made, was introduced into Papua New Guinea as a cash crop. It was at one time an important export item, second only to coffee in terms of cash crop production. However, continuing troubles on Bougainville since the late 1980s have forced commercial agricultural activities on that island to be abandoned.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, DEVELOPMENT, PALM OIL, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)
16. CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES: Sawos
As in all cultures, many events are cause for celebration in Sawos society. Marriage is celebrated with a series of feasts at both the bride and groom’s homes and accompanied by songs and rituals to honour the event. Once in a lifetime the people of neighbouring villages may come together to celebrate the opening of a new haus tambaran, or spirit house, a significant spiritual event in the life of the community. Funeral ceremonies are important in marking the transition of the deceased from this life to the spirit world. There are also other causes for celebration such as the completion of secondary school.
Most celebrations involve feasting. A pig is usually killed for the event, cooked and shared with guests. Many celebrations also involve wearing traditional bilas or body decoration, as well as music and song.
(Related entries: BILAS, BRIDE PRICE, FUNERALS, HAUS TAMBARAN, INITIATION, MARRIAGE, WEDDINGS)
17. CHRISTIANITY
Christianity is officially the dominant religion in Papua New Guinea today. Around 65% of the population is Protestant and around 30% are Catholic. In the nineteenth century, many Christian missionaries from a variety of religious groups set up missions, under British, German and Dutch administrations. Traditional beliefs are nevertheless still widespread, with many people combining Christian and traditional spiritual beliefs and practices. The traditional beliefs play a significant role in the daily lives of the people of PNG, through traditional celebrations, rituals and community roles and relationships.
(Related entries: BILAS, CULTURE: Diversity, HAUS TAMBARAN, INITIATION, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea, MISSION: Torembi, RELIGION)
18. CLIMATE
Papua New Guinea is located in the tropics, very close to the Equator. The winds that blow across the warm seas carry clouds and moisture. This means that most of the country has high temperatures, heavy rainfall and high humidity, making it one of the cloudiest countries in the world.
There are really only two seasons in the year, the Wet and the Dry (or not quite so wet). In the Wet season, from November to April, the North West Monsoon winds carry enormous amounts of rain to the island. Because the high mountain ranges cause the moisture-laden winds to drop their water, some areas are in rain shadows and receive less rain than others. Port Moresby is in the driest part of the country, receiving only around 1 000 millimetres of rain in an average year. Lae, on the other hand, receives on average up to 5 000 millimetres per year, and has even been deluged with 9 000 millimetres of rain over a year – that is 9 metres of rain!
Being close to the Equator, temperatures vary little throughout the year, but they do vary according to height above sea level. On a single day it might be 35 degrees Celsius on the coast and cold enough for frost up in the central Highlands.
(Related entries: HUMIDITY, RAINFALL, TEMPERATURE)
19. CLOTHING
Today most people in Papua New Guinea wear contemporary shirts, shorts, trousers, skirts, dresses and so on, much the same as one would expect to see in most industrialised countries. As the climate is hot for most of the year, clothing tends to be lightweight. Traditionally, however, people in Papua New Guinea wear clothing which reflects their local culture, tribal and clan associations. Such clothing and body decoration, or bilas, use local materials such as leaves, grasses, shells and feathers, with special colours and designs to identify the wearer with his or her cultural connections. Though spoken of as ‘grass skirts’ the traditional clothes worn by Sepik women (now worn only on special occasions) were in fact made from the leaves of the sago palm.
Missionaries in the past frowned upon the wearing of bilas and discouraged the practice. But in recent times, wearing bilas at special occasions or celebrations has become a way of asserting traditional culture and identity.
(Related entries: BILAS, CLIMATE)
20. COCONUTS AND COPRA
Copra is a foodstuff made up of the dried kernels of coconuts. It is the crop which first attracted traders to the South Pacific region. It is one of Papua New Guinea’s significant export items, grown as part of the country’s developing agricultural sector. However, while existing coconut palms have been harvested, commercial grade palms have generally not been planted, so overall productivity is not high. Export of agricultural products generally accounts for around 10% of all exports from Papua New Guinea. Most are not processed locally but exported in raw form.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, CACAO, COFFEE, DEVELOPMENT, PALM OIL, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)
21. COFFEE
The Eastern Highlands is the centre of Papua New Guinea’s coffee industry and is one of the major coffee growing regions in the country. In the Eastern Highlands, about a third of all households grow coffee as a cash crop, in addition to their subsistence farming. Coffee is one of PNG’s major export items from the agricultural sector, representing around a quarter of all agricultural exports which in turn account for around 10% of all exports.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, DEVELOPMENT, PALM OIL)
22. COMMUNICATIONS: Broadcast
Broadcast radio services operate throughout Papua New Guinea in a variety of languages, including English, Pidgin and Hiri Motu. Television is also broadcast, through a single, locally-based commercial television station, EM TV, based in Port Moresby, which is a subsidiary of the Nine Network Australia. Other television services can be seen via satellite, including those provided by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. At the village level, radio is the more likely mode of receiving news and information, using battery power, as electricity is generally unavailable in rural or remote areas.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, LANGUAGE, TELECOMMUNICATIONS)
23. CROCODILES
Crocodiles are one of the earth’s largest reptiles and can live up to 40 years or more. They thrive in the waters of the Sepik River and its tributaries. Crocodiles may attack humans when their territories have been invaded and this is an ever-present threat to those who live, work and play in and near river waters.
Crocodiles feature prominently in the cultural life of the peoples who live in the Sepik region. Crocodile heads are carved onto the prows of wooden canoes and their features are incorporated into the design of garamut drums. The form and texture of their leathery, armoured skin are also echoed in the ritual scarification associated with initiation of young men into adulthood within some tribal communities.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, BILAS, DRUMS: Garamut, INITIATION, SEPIK RIVER)
24. CRY SONGS: Sawos
When a Sawos villager dies, the women mourn for the dead by singing special songs of dedication called ‘cry songs’. The music of the funeral ceremony will often be played behind screens, so that the women and children may participate in song, but do not actually see the instruments which accompany their singing. These instruments are believed to represent the voices of the ‘spirits’. Traditionally, the Sawos believe that such instruments are sacred and may be seen and played only by men, and they are stored in the haus tambaran.
(Related entries: FUNERALS, HAUS TAMBARAN, MUSIC)
/tyman/sawos/audio/crysong.mp3
25. CULTURE: Diversity
The interrelationships with particular and diverse environments in Papua New Guinea shape culture. Culture is expressed in things such as language, artistic tradition, architecture, dress and music, as well as the way in which people relate to each other, how they see their identity, and what they believe in. The distinctive features of a particular place can affect every aspect of life, not just the way people use the environment to cultivate food or provide shelter, but also people’s relationships, roles and responsibilities within the community.
In PNG, the isolation caused by geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers or sea, has been the catalyst for the development of diverse cultures. For example, in the cultural life of the highland people, communal singsings are celebrated, which traditionally allowed warring tribes to put aside their differences. They are still held to mark important events.
Part of the culture of the coastal and island people is to exchange gifts as signs of peace and generosity to neighbours. In lowland areas around the Sepik River a distinctive artistic tradition has developed. Intricately designed buildings called haus tambaran are set aside for ancestral spirits and ordinary household objects are often beautifully carved, painted and decorated.
(Related entries: LANGUAGE, GEOGRAPHY, SEPIK RIVER, WANTOK)
26. CUSCUS
The cuscus is a slow-moving, nocturnal marsupial found in Papua New Guinea, rainforest areas of Northern Queensland and nearby islands. It feeds mainly on fruits and leaves. About the size of a domestic cat, it has a prehensile tail, that is, one which is capable of grasping things. As the cuscus is a tree dweller, this is especially useful as it moves around the branches.
The Sawos people hunt the cuscus for its meat and its fur. Some are also kept as pets. Their fur is used in the creation of special headbands used by many Sawos men as part of bilas worn at special occasions. Traditionally, the wearing of such a headdress indicated that the wearer had killed a man in defence of the village.
(Related entries: BILAS, FLORA AND FAUNA)
27. DEBATING STOOL: Sawos
In Sawos society, decision making relating to issues of village life is a communal activity. Important decisions are not made individually, but are debated and made by the men of the village, usually within the haus tambaran. Such decision making involves only adult males. Women’s influence in village decision making can only be informal and they are not permitted to participate directly in the actual debate.
A debating stool is in fact a carved wooden figure, usually painted and decorated, which is given pride of place within the haus tambaran. When a man has the floor during a debate, from time to time he will strike the stool with a switch of leaves to emphasise his point. Any man can speak and, eventually, a consensus agreement will be reached. Some meetings will go all day as opinions are expressed and considered by the men of the community.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, HAUS TAMBARAN)
28. DEVELOPMENT
Papua New Guinea is a developing country with a population of about 4 million people in 1998, about 40% of whom are aged 14 years or less. The modern sector of PNG’s economy is still young and relatively small. Over 70% of the population are subsistence farmers, living in rural villages and depending on gardening to grow crops for food and for sale at local markets.
Most of the wealth, access to reliable services, education and paid employment is concentrated in the few urban areas. The young drift from rural to urban areas in search of jobs which do not yet exist. Creating employment is one of the pressing priorities of government. Another priority is to improve the economic opportunities, health, education and general living standards for people living in villages.
PNG is well placed in terms of development with its rich supply of natural resources and its location in the Asia-Pacific region. In the Sepik area, development has included commercial enterprises such as cattle raising projects, crocodile hunting, growing coffee, coconuts and rice for export and a small but expanding tourist industry.
PNG’s development depends partly on foreign aid. It receives one of the highest rates of aid per capita in the world and Australia is by far the largest donor.
PNG is a nation in transition, where any decisions made regarding development will potentially have significant social, cultural and environmental impact on the country and its people.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, AID, CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, ECONOMY, EXPORT AND IMPORT, POPULATION)
29. DRUMS: Sawos - Garamut
Large drums, called garamut, are played by Sawos men in religious ceremonies. The garamut is an idiophone, which means the instrument itself makes the sound. The garamut’s sound and pitch are determined by size and thickness and the length of the narrow slit which is a feature of its construction. Garamut drums are carved from wood and often decorated with totems. They vary in size and, like many instruments in Sawos culture, are usually played in pairs. They are also used to send tapets, or personal signals. Every villager has an individual tapet, or call sign, which may be played on a garamut.
The largest garamuts are housed in the haus tambaran and are used in music relating to the spiritual life of the community. Others are used more generally as tools of communication in village life, to make public announcements and to contact individuals. For example, a young woman’s tapet will be played to call her to her marriage ceremony, or messages will be sent to call participants in to ceremonies or community events.
(Related entry: DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:
Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed)
/tyman/sawos/audio/garamut1.mp3
/tyman/sawos/audio/garamut2.mp3
/tyman/sawos/audio/garamut3.mp3
30. DRUMS: Sawos - Kundu
Kundu drums are used by the Sawos to accompany the singing at various celebrations. Made of hardwood, they are classed as membranophones, because the sound is made from the snakeskin or lizard skin stretched over the drum’s opening. Kundu drums have no religious significance and are used for ceremonies attended by men and women - for example, bride price, marriage and engagement ceremonies.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed)
31. DRUMS: Sawos - Water
Water drums are traditional Sawos instruments, still used by the Sawos who live furthest from the influence of Christian missionaries. They are known locally as abuk waak and are sacred instruments used in initiation ceremonies. Water drums are made of wood and extremely heavy, requiring two men to use them. They are similar in shape to an hour glass. The sound is made by plunging them into pools of water. These drums are apparently unique to the middle Sepik region of Papua New Guinea.
(Related entry: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed)
32. EASTERN HIGHLANDS
The Eastern Highlands are characterised by steep and rugged mountains. They are covered by dense rainforests, with grassy valleys below. The area is marked by great diversity in language and, unlike other parts of the country, has a temperate climate with cool nights and warm days. Goroka, 1 600 metres above sea level, is the largest town in the area and it is the provincial capital of the Eastern Highlands. The well-known Asaro mud men are from an Eastern Highland village called Komunive.
(Related entries: BILAS, PROVINCES)
33. ECONOMY
Papua New Guinea’s economy falls into two categories: traditional and modern.
The traditional economy, which supports over two-thirds of the population, is based on subsistence agriculture. Most rural communities are self-sufficient, with well-organised gardens growing enough food for family and village. The urban population, which is relatively small, operates as a modern economy which depends largely on exports to produce income and spends the income on imported food and manufactured goods. The differences between the urban and the rural economy are marked.
PNG exports mainly primary products. Huge copper and gold mines have
been carved out of the jungle, raising concerns about the effects on the
environment and the loss of traditional lands. Some of the most well known
mining developments are the Ok Tedi copper and gold mine, the Porgera gold
mine and the Bougainville copper mine. The other major exports are almost
entirely agricultural crops such as coffee, cacao and copra, which is the
dry kernel of the coconut. The country also exports large quantities of
timber and has a sizeable fishing industry. Despite its wealth of resources,
the expense of transporting goods across the rough and mountainous terrain,
where air transport is often the only practical option, is one of the major
challenges to the economy.
In less than 100 years, PNG has developed from a colonial country,
with small traditional economies, to a modern, independent nation, operating
in a competitive and demanding global environment. However, there are many
challenges facing the nation, still largely dependent on foreign aid and
where access to employment opportunities, education, telecommunications
and other services is limited, especially in rural and remote areas.
(Related entries: AID, DEVELOPMENT, KINA, MARKETS, MONEY, POPULATION)
34. EDUCATION
Papua New Guinea’s education system is still expanding. Schools were originally set up by missions or by the former Australian administration and many are still run by missions or church organisations. However, a national Department of Education now manages most schools and their curriculum offerings. Education is structured to provide two preschool years in a village or community setting, six years at primary school level, incorporating the first two years of high school studies, and four years of secondary education.
Preschools and primary schools are available to all children, though not all of the eligible age group actually attend (76% boys and 66% girls in 1990). High school places are relatively limited.
Primary schooling is generally available within the local village, but children often have to move to larger centres into boarding accommodation if they wish to go on to secondary level. As boarding is relatively expensive, even with government subsidies, going on to secondary school is not a viable option for many children. Retention rates are relatively low, especially in this transition from primary to secondary schooling.
To date, only a small proportion of students go on to tertiary studies. Despite this, there are numerous institutes of tertiary education, including two universities, the University of Papua New Guinea in Port Moresby and the University of Technology in Lae. There are also teacher training colleges, technical and business training institutes and agricultural colleges. Most tertiary students receive scholarships and a small living allowance to enable them to pursue their studies. Across the population, adult literacy levels, estimated at between 50 – 70%, are slowly rising as a result of literacy awareness programs.
(Related entries: LANGUAGE, SCHOOL: Torembi)
35. EMPLOYMENT
Formal employment is growing at a very slow pace in Papua New Guinea. The growth of employment is, in fact, not keeping up with the overall growth in population. Urban unemployment and rural under-employment are a problem for the nation. Unemployment is most obvious among younger people. Increased public investment is needed to create growth and, in turn, employment opportunities.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, EDUCATION, POPULATION)
36. ENVIRONMENT
There are a number of environmental concerns facing Papua New Guinea today. Industrial development, while necessary to economic growth, can have detrimental effects on the environment. Mining operations can create soil erosion and run-offs from mine tailings which can cause pollution, while the safe disposal of chemicals is very difficult. Uncontrolled logging has caused soil erosion and downstream siltation of rivers. Water pollution threatens rivers, extensive mangrove systems and ultimately marine resources. If the rich biodiversity which characterises PNG is to be preserved, effective management of development is crucial.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FLORA AND FAUNA, FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, MINING, POPULATION)
37. EUROPEAN COLONISATION
The first Europeans to visit the island of New Guinea were probably Portuguese seafarers in the sixteenth century. A Portuguese sea captain, Jorge de Meneses, sighted the mainland in 1526 and called it Illpas dos Papuas, ‘Land of the curly-haired people’. The main island was called New Guinea by a Spanish explorer, Inigo Ortiz de Retes, because the people he met reminded him of people from Africa’s Guinea coastal area. Throughout the following centuries, New Guinea was visited by many European traders in search of such treasures as pearls and gold.
There was even an appalling trade in human beings - a slave trade - with many people from New Guinea being kidnapped to work in Queensland’s sugar plantations. Many of their descendants still live in Australia. In 1848 the Dutch claimed sovereignty over the western half of the main island, now known as Irian Jaya and governed by Indonesia. The other half was split in two when Germany annexed the north, and Britain the south. With their superior weapons, these foreign invaders defeated anyone who opposed them. Then, in 1906, Australia took over the government of the British colony and named it Papua. In 1919, the Australians took over the ex-German colony as a trust territory. After World War II, Papua New Guinea remained under Australian supervision. Aided by the Australian Government, PNG began to prepare for independence. On 16 September 1975, Papua New Guinea became an independent parliamentary democracy, ending nearly one hundred of years of colonial rule.
(Related entries: HISTORY: Early, HISTORY: Recent, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea)
38. EXPORT AND IMPORT
The major exports of Papua New Guinea are minerals, including gold, silver, copper ore and petroleum. Other important exports include timber, palm oil, coffee, copra, fish and shellfish. Major imports include manufactured goods, foodstuffs, machinery and equipment. Australia has been the main source of these imported items, especially construction materials and machinery. This predominance is changing slowly as cheaper consumer goods are being imported from other countries, especially Asian nations. The major suppliers of imports are presently Australia, Japan and Singapore.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, AUSTRALIA, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, MINING)
39. FISHING INDUSTRY
Coastal communities in Papua New Guinea have always harvested fish from the sea as part of their daily diet. Fish are an excellent source of protein. Local communities have also fished along the extensive river networks throughout the country, using the catch for barter and exchange as well as eating it.
In recent times, the PNG government has encouraged maritime fishing on a larger scale for both domestic use and export. The most significant yield from surrounding sea waters includes tuna, prawns, barramundi and lobster.
The industry is small but growing, as PNG has abundant supplies of fish along its extensive coastline. Licences have been issued for fishing in specified areas in order to control commercial development.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FORESTRY, MINING, TOURISM)
40. FLORA AND FAUNA
Over 75% of Papua New Guinea is covered by tropical rainforest, which flourishes in the hot, wet climate. Plants grow quickly in this environment and trees can reach 45 metres or more in height, spreading their roots above as well as below the ground, forming buttresses. The canopy, which forms as branches from the top storey meet, protects the lush lower storeys of palms, ferns and other plant life.
Swamp forests are found in lowland areas, with mangrove forests close to river mouths and sago palm forests further inland. There are also drier areas which are grassy savannas with a scattering of trees. In the higher parts of the mountainous regions, deciduous trees and pines can be found.
Animal life in Papua New Guinea is closely related to that found in Australia. The two countries were joined together until around 8 000 years ago when they were separated by a rise in sea level. PNG is home to animals such as wallabies, tree kangaroos, possums and echidnas, as well as an extraordinary range of beautiful butterflies and moths. There are also many types of reptiles, including crocodiles, goannas and taipans. Birdlife is also abundant, with the spectacular birds of paradise best known.
Animals including pigs, dogs and chickens have been introduced into PNG by people migrating to the islands over hundreds of years. The pig is especially valued as a sign of wealth and is a prized possession and an important part of many ceremonies. The number of pigs a person owns is an indicator of power and influence.
(Related entries: BIRDS OF PARADISE, CUSCUS, ENVIRONMENT, PIGS, SAGO PALM)
41. FLUTES: Sawos
The long flutes played by initiated Sawos men are made from bamboo and are kept in the haus tambaran. These flutes, which are always played in pairs, are carefully pitched and represent the voices of various spirits. Young initiates play the amblam, long open-ended pan pipes, to learn the sacred melodies for the long flute duets. There are also short flutes made of bamboo of varying lengths, with one finger hole, which are played either in pairs or singly.
Pan pipes with closed ends are played by men, women and children. There is also a large bamboo pipe which is sung into and used as a kind of trumpet/megaphone in religious ceremonies. Sometimes these are used in pairs.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, HAUS TAMBARAN, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, SAWOS)
BACK TO THE JOHN TYMAN WELCOME PAGE